Skin Marking Practices of Ethnic Groups in Nigeria:

An Annotated Bibliography

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY ANNOTATIONS

Ethnic Groups:

Benin:


023.    Curnow, Kathy. “The art of fasting: Benin’s Ague ceremony.” African Arts 30.4 (1997): 46-53.

The Ewa members are common in Benin art, and are shown with tattoos and scarification marks. (ILG)


024.    Nevadomsky, Joseph. “The clothing of political identity: costume and scarification in the Benin Kingdom.” African Arts 28.1 (1995): 62-73.

The purpose of scarification within the Benin culture is discussed in this text. (EI)

 

Edo:


025.     Aisien, Ekhaguosa. Iwu: the Body Markings of the Edo People. Benin City, Nigeria: Aisien Publishers, 1986.

This Southern Nigerian ethnic group’s use of body markings (Iwu) is on a decline as new societies effect the old traditions. This book explains the history/story and meaning of the Iwu markings for both the male and female role of the group. The Iwu symbols and designs are explained through diagrams and illustrations. (ILG)

026.    Bosah, S. I. “Part III.” Groundwork of the History and Culture, of Onitsha. Ontisha?: S.N., 1975? 119-125, 153-171.

The Onitsha originated as part of the Edo. They have since moved throughout Nigeria and into Niger. In part III, there are different social customs and rituals noted. The sections to note are “from birth to adolescence” and “title-taking and coronation ceremonies.” (ILG)

027.     Bradbury, R. E. The Benin Kingdom and the Edo-Speaking Peoples of South-Western Nigeria. Western Africa: Ethnographic Survey of Africa, Part VII. Ed. Daryll Forde, London, England: International African Institute, 1957.

“The Life Cycle” is a common section in all the groups listed under the Benin Kingdom and the Edo. (ILG)

028.    Nevadomsky, Joseph and Ekhagusa Aisien. “The clothing of political identity.” African Arts 28.1 (1995): 62-73, 100.

Although this article first speaks of a fashion show, it quickly turns to other forms of body adornment and their roles in history and in the Edo culture. (K & AP)

029.    Thomas, Northcote, W. “Law and custom.” Anthropological Report on the Edo-Speaking Peoples of Nigeria. Vol. 1. London, England: Harrison and Sons, 1910.

There is a section on marriage and birth of Edo people, which include the father arranging for his daughter to get her body marked when she reaches puberty. (HR)

 

Fulani:


030.    Adepegba, C.O. Decorative Arts of the Fulani Nomads. Ibadan, Nigeria: Ibadan University Press, 1986.

The desire to make the self-attractive through adorning the body is described in the chapter called “Body ornaments of the Fulani Nomads.” The rest of the text speaks of the history of the Fulani and their practice of Calabash decoration. (K)

031.    Brian, Robert. The Decorated Body. New York, NY; Hagerstown, MD; San Francisco, CA; London England: Harper & Row, 1979.

This group is found in a number of areas in this book. The male Fulani decorate themselves in animal inspired paint to express beauty. In general, both the men and women paint themselves for beauty. (HR)

032.    Wilson-Haffenden, Capt. J. R. The Red Men of Nigeria. London, England: Seely, Service & Co. Ltd., 1930.

Body marking practices are found in the rites of passages of the Fulani, starting with scarring the face of their children. (ILG)

 

Ga’anda:


033.     Boyle, C. V. “The marking of girls at Ga’anda.” Journal of the African Society 15 (1916): 361-366.

Captain Boyle’s notes on rites of passage practices for the La-La girls and the Ordeal of Manhood. (MC)

034.     Berns, Marla C. “Ga’anda scarification: a model for art and identity.” Marks of Civilization: Artistic Transformations of the Human Body. Ed. Arnold Rubin. Los Angeles: Museum of Cultural History, University of California, 1988. 57-76.

_ _ _ _ “Ga’anda scarification: a model for art and identity.” The Visible Self: Global Perspectives on Dress, Culture, and Society. Eds. Joanne B. Eicher, Sandra Lee Evenson, and Hazel A. Lutz. New York, New York: Fair child publications, 2000. 261-267.

The Hleeta is highlighted as a five or six stage ritual scarification process that females go through during different stages of growth. There is a diagram of the markings and an explanation of what the marks are to look like, such as the saxti’year, which is to look like falling rain drops by the abdomen. (ILG)

035.    Kirk-Greene, A. H. M. “A Lala initiation ceremony.” Man 57 (1957): 9-11.

Considered a “minor tribe” by the author, the LaLa female puberty ceremony is described in this article, along with other traditions. The Lala seem to be apart of the Ga’anda, based on some readings. (AA)

036.    na Hammandikko, Musa Wawu. History of Ga’anda. Occasional Paper no. 21. Translated by Marla Berns. Los Angeles, CA: African Studies Center, University of California, 1980.

The history and customs of the Ga’anda is contained in this paper and is extensively footnoted. (MC)
 


Hausa:


037.     Barkow, Jerome H. “Hausa women and Islam.” Canadian Journal of African Studies Special Issue: The Roles of African Women: Past, Present and Future 6.2 (1972): 317-328.

Many issues face Islamic women. The rituals involving the different transitions women go through from puberty and to old age, are included in this article. These rituals include many forms of body transformations of the skin. (JS)

038.    Madauci, Ibrahim, Yahaya Isa, and Bello Daura. Hausa Customs. Zaria, Nigeria: Northern Nigerian Publishing Co., 1968.

Rituals, involving the body, are described in the first chapter “birth to death.” (ILG)

039.    Smith, M. G. “The Hausa of Northern Nigeria.” Peoples of Africa: Cultures of Africa South of the Sahara. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, Inc., 1965. 119-155.

The young girls are taught about the arts of self-decoration while the boys are not spoken of going through a true ritual at a young age. The article also gives an overview of the land, social customs and politics of the Hausa. (JB)

 

Igbo:


040.     Afuekwe, Austin, I. “Festive ceremonies and other practices.” A Philosophical Inquiry into Religion & Social Life in Igbo Land: Alor as a Case Study. Calabar, Cross River State, Nideria: APCON Ltd., 1992. 19-35.

Each festival or ceremony is listed in the native language with the English translation. (ILG)

041.    Anameze, Rev. Fr. Dr. Luke N. Marriage Among Igbos: and Analytical Study of Past and Present Practices. Enugu, Nigeria: CPA & Gold Productions, 1996.

Cicatrisation is required for a woman in preparation for marriage.

042.    Aniakor, Chike C. “Igbo aesthetics: an introduction” Nigerian Magazine 141 (1982): 3-15.

Beauty of the Igbo is expressed through different forms of artwork and through body treatments. Different ideas and forms of beauty are discussed in this overview. (ILG)

043.    Basden, George. T. Among the Ibos of Nigeria: an Account of the Curious and Interesting Habits, Customs and Beliefs of the Little Known African People by One Who for Many Years Lived Amongst Them on Close & Intimate Terms. New York, NY: Barnes & Noble, Inc., 1966.

The primary section of this book entailing body art is found in the “courtship and marriage section,” although there are many images throughout the book. (HR)

044.    Basden, George. T. Niger Ibos: a Description of the Primitive Life, Customs and Animistic Beliefs of the Ibo People of Nigeria by One Who for Thirty-Five Years, Enjoyed the Privilege of their Intimate Confidence and Friendship. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Barnes & Noble, Inc., 1966.

The book has 70 illustrations and Photographs of the Ibo people. The book looks at many aspect of the Ibo life, including ceremonies. (ILG)

045.     Egboh, J. A. “Body decoration among Igbo women.” Nigerian Heritage 10 (2001): 117-125.

Looks at the “cosmetic art, in the area of beautification of women’s bodies.” Taken from the introduction. (AP)

046.    Forde, Daryll and G. I. Jones. The Ibo and Ibibio-Speaking Peoples of South-Eastern Nigeria. Western Africa: Ethnographic Survey of Africa, Part III. Ed. Daryll Forde, London, England; New York, NY; Toronto, Canada: International African Institute by the Oxford University Press, 1950.

This volume separates the Ibo (Igbo) and the Ibibio as two separate groups with similar origins. The text looks into the traditions of each culture. (ILG)

047.     Green, Margaret Mackeson. Igbo Village Affairs: Chiefly with Reference to the Village of Umueke Agbaja. London; Edinburgh, England: Frank Cass and Co. Ltd., 1964.

The different organizations and roles that each member par takes in the society is noted in this book. During the ritual involving a birth, there are dancers covered in uri patterns. (HR)

048.     Ifemesia, Chieka. Traditional Humane Living Among the IGBO an Historical Perspective. Enugu, Nigeria: Fourth Dimension Publishers Co. Ltd., 1979.

Within this text, the discussion of rank and social class as depicted by body marks and scarification is mentioned, along with other issues such as: Social relations, politics and the issues within a global context. (ILG)

049.     Ilogu, Edmund. “Traditional Ibo religious beliefs, practices and organizations.” Christianity and Ibo Culture. Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1974.

Even with the effects of Christianity on Ibo culture, certain ceremonial practices still take place.

050.    Jeffreys, M. D. W. “The winged solar disk or Ibo It(Sigma)i facial scarification.” Africa 21.2 (1951): 93-111.

The Nigerian government requested this article to be researched and written. The study was undertaken from 1930-1931. The type of scarification (ItSi –fix) relates to signs of status, rank or nobility. (K & AP)

051.     King, Johathan. “Human Image: bodily inscription.” British Museum Magazine 38.22-7 (2000): 22-27.

“The vast span of cultures and ideas is represented in the 100 or so objects in the ‘Human Image’ exhibition which inaugurate the new Great Court exhibition space. For the first time, the subject of the human face and body is taken to present a selection of objects from across the entire range of the Museum’s collections and pursue ideas across geographical and chronological boundaries.” Taken from the beginning of the article. An Igbibio statue is included with the article. (AP)

052.    Maduekwe, Joseph Chukwu. Umudioka: an Identity of Vital Angles of Ancient Igbo Wisdom. New Haven, Enugu: Swell Publishers, 1991.

The history and social life of the Umudioka is captured in this book. Chapter five is titled “Spread of Scarification.” (ILG)

053.    Meek, C. K. Law and Authority in a Nigerian Tribe: a Study in Indirect Rule. New York, NY: Barnes & Nobel, Inc., 1970.

Many different groups are found in this text, but it seems that the Ibo are the overall ethnic group. Many initiation rites and ceremonies are detailed in this text, along with cicatrisation. The practice of rubbing charcoal into the incisions is explained in the chapter names “titles,” and the chapter titled “the law of marriage” also expresses some body marking practices. (HR)

054.     Ndulue, Christopher Chukwuma. Womanhood in Igbo culture. Aba, Abia State, Nigeria: Snaap Press, 1995.

The many ceremonies during the different developmental stages of a woman are looked at. Some of the rituals include singing a song and anointing a newborn baby with white powder, a naming ceremony, rites of passage, marriage rituals and death ceremonies. (ILG)

055.     Nzimiro, Ikenna. Studies in Ibo Political Systems: Chieftaincy and Politics in Four Niger States. Berkeley; Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1972.

The use of white is expressed in this book. Whether it is only applied around the eyes, or if the whole body is covered in white, status and ritual significance is explained here and shown in pictures. (NH)

056.    Ottenberg, Phoebe. “The Afrikpo Ibo of Eastern Nigeria.” Peoples of Africa: Cultures of Africa South of the Sahara. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, Inc., 1965. 1-39.

The initiation rite of adolescent males and females is included in this overview of the Ibo land, society and politics. (JB)

057.    Ottenberg, Simon. Masked Rituals of Afrikpo: the Context of an African Art. Seattle, WA; London, England: University of Washington Press, 1975.

Although this book is about masks and masquerades, the participants in such events must also decorate their bodies by paint or clothing. There are many full color images in this book, depicting the ceremonies described. (HR)

058.    Leith-Ross, Sylvia. African Women: a Study of the Ibo of Nigeria. London, England: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., 1939.

The different aspect of being a woman in African society is explored in this text. One difference that the women use a dark bluish-brown juice called uri, to boldly decorate their bodies. (HR)

059.     Talbot, P. Amaury. “Childhood to marriage.” The Peoples of Southern Nigeria Vol. 2. London, England: Oxford University Press, Humphrey Milford, 1926.

This Chapter looks at: circumcision, “marks,” teeth-filing, fatting-house, dress and coiffure.” (ILG)

060.    Thomas, Northcote, W. “Marking, grades.” Anthropological Report on the Ibo-Speaking Peoples of Nigeria. Vol. 1. New York, NY: Negro Universities Press, 1969.

This chapter describes the custom of facial markings among men and women of the Ibo people. There are photographs also. (ILG)

061.    Thomas, Northcote, W. “Law and custom of the Ibo of the Asaba District, South Nigeria.” Anthropological Report on the Ibo-speaking Peoples of Nigeria. Vol. IV. New York, NY: Negro Universities Press, 1969.

There are some interesting uses of body art in this text, including a doctor chalking around his eyes to denote his status. There are also a number of plates showing different people’s hairstyles and facial markings. Plate XV even has a plastic hanging art piece of a woman with distinct scarification marks on the torso. (HR)

062.    Umuetuk, Okon V. “Body art in Ibibio culture.” Nigerian Magazine 53:2 (1985): 40-56.

The culture discussed in this article is located in South Eastern Nigeria, generally known as Ibibioland, and represents many sub-groups. The illustrations of markings found with in this culture derives from objects that surround the people’s lives, such as nature. The markings can be found on the skin, material, jewelry and other forms of adornment. (K & AP)

063.     Uzochukwu, Sam. “The art of facial scarification among the Igbo.” Nigerian Magazine 55.1 (1987): 39-42.

The process and trends of Ichi is explained in this text. A song to assuage the pain of Ichi, written in the native tongue and translated to English, is also included. (ILG)
 


 

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Last updated on December 24, 2004
Created Dec. 04, 2004
For: LIS 530M
Taught by: Professor Al Kagan

 

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