Skin Marking Practices of Ethnic Groups in Nigeria:

An Annotated Bibliography

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY ANNOTATIONS

Ethnic Groups:

 

Kagoro:


064.    Meek, C. K. Tribal Studies in Northern Nigeria. Vol. 2. London, England: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd., 1931. 90-100.

Marriage is the focus of this article on the Kagoro, in which the girl getting ready for marriage receives body marks that are elaborate and mentioned in the Katab report. (ILG)

065.     Tremearne, A. J. N. “Notes on the Kagoro and other Nigerian head-hunters.” The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 42 (1912): 136-199.

This scholarly work on some of the head-hunters of Nigeria covers a large array of topics consisting of: the country, anatomical observations, body markings, habitations, superstitions and magic, death, social and biological changes, slavery, food, disease, music, war and morals. (JS)

 

Kalabari:


066.    Daly, Mary Catherine. Kalabari Female Appearance and the Tradition of Iria. PH.D. Diss. Graduate School of the University of Minnesota. 1984. Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms International, 1989.

The stages of traditional womanhood are the focus of the PHD dissertation. Although the initiation of each stage is the focus of this dissertation, the author does mention clothing and other body decorations. The Kalabari are found in the greater Niger Delta area. (ILG)

 

Nuba:


067.     Brian, Robert. “The scarred body.” The Decorated Body. New York, NY; Hagerstown, MD; San Francisco, CA; London England: Harper & Row, 1979. 68-81.

The Nuba’s technique of scarring by using hooks is described in this text and also depicted in color pictures. This chapter is primarily where the Nuba are mentioned, but they also appear in “the painted body” section. (HR)

068.     Faris, James C. Nuba Personal Art. London, England: Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd., 1972.

Many types of body enhancements are mentioned in chapter 6, “designs and the body.” (IGL)

069.    Riefenstahl, Leni. The Last of the Nuba. New York, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995.

The rites of passage for both girls and boys are described from the Nuba of Sudan. There are many photographs of different body treatments.

070.     Riefenstahl, Leni. The People of Kau. Translated by J. Maxwell Brownjohn. New York, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1979.

This group within the Nuba people is based near Sudan. They are still descendents from the ethnic group that once were in Nigeria. There are many photographs and a section called “the art of tattooing.”

071.    Rodger, George. Village of the Nubas. London, England: Phaidon, 1999.

This book is a combination text and photo-essay. There are many black and white photographs that show the daily life of Nubas and the designs of their body markings. (ILG)

072.     van Gerven, Dennis P., David S. Carlson, and George J. Armelagos. “Racial history and bio-cultural adaptation of Nubian archaeological populations.” The Journal of African History 14.4 (1973): 555-564.

Studying the remains of Nubian people can tell Archeologists a lot about their history. By analyzing the bone growth and development of Nubians and discovering of tattooing and intentional scarification “all rare in archaeological populations” can enhance the understanding of a population. (AA)

 

Tiv:


073.    Abraham, Capt. R. C., B. A. “The unseen forces.” The Tiv People. Lagos, Nigeria: Government Printer, 1933. 116-145.

A ritual between a man and a woman involving the application of blood on the body is described in this chapter. (TCN)

074.    Akiga. “The origin of the Tiv tribe, and some of the tribal customs.” Akiga’s Story: the Tiv Tribe as Seen by One of its Members. Translated by Rupert East. Ibadan, Nigeria: Caltop Publications Ltd., 2003. 12-53.

In this chapter there are sections such as “the origin of the raised scars on the face and other tribal markings and practices,” “cicatrization,” “the marks on women,” and “the new markings.”

075.    Bohannan, Laura and Paul. The Tiv of Central Nigeria. Ethnographic survey of Africa, Part VIII. Ed. Daryll Forde. London, England: International African Institute, 1969.

There is a section that describes cicatrisation, dress, and adornment. (ILG).

076.    Bohannan, Paul. “Beauty and scarification amongst the Tiv.” Man 56 (1956): 117-121. (JSTOR)

_ _ _ _ “Beauty and scarification amongst the Tiv.” Marks of Civilization: Artistic Transformations of the Human Body. Ed. Arnold Rubin. Los Angeles, California: University of California, 1988. 77-82.

The idea of “glowing,” (wanger) by making the skin lighter through the use of certain types of plants and scarring, is what the Tiv find beautiful. This article gives drawings and photographs of the different designs that the Tiv use to emphasis their bodies and also explains how the different methods of adorning the body have evolved through each generation. (ILG)

077.    Bohannan, Paul. “The Tiv Nigeria.” Peoples of Africa: Cultures of Africa South of the Sahara. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, Inc., 1965. 513-546.

In this overview of the social life, work and politics of the Tiv people, there is some description of scarification, although the author suggests that there is not a true ritual that goes along with the event of body alteration. (JB)

078.     Brian, Robert. “The scarred body.” The Decorated Body. New York, NY; Hagerstown, MD; San Francisco, CA; London England: Harper & Row, 1979. 68-81.

The Tiv are noted among other ethnic groups that use scarification on the body of women and girls for beauty and fertility. (HR)

079.     Burton, John W. “Him and Her: initiation of the body.” Culture and the Human Body: an Anthropological Perspective. Prospect Heights, Illinois: Waveland Press, Inc., 2001. 82-85, 87.

This chapter includes the section of, “Tiv Bodies” that describes initiation rituals of that ethnic group. (IB)

080.    Downes, Capt. R. M. The Tiv Tribe. Kaduna, Nigeria: The Government Printer, 1933.

Each stage in the life cycle of the Tiv is described in this book, often under the original language’s proper name. During the marriage ceremony, the bride’s body is covered in black lines. (ILG)

081.    Eicher, Joanne B., Sandra Lee Evenson, and Hazel A. Lutz, Eds. The Visible Self: Global Perspectives on Dress, Culture, and Society. New York, New York: Fair child publications, 2000.

A photo of two Tiv men is shown in the section called “Dress as an Art Form.” This text looks are cultural art forms a cross cultures. (ILG)

082.     Lincoln, Bruce. “The religious significance of women’s scarification among the Tiv.” Africa 45.3 (1975): 316-326.

The article goes into the reasons for scarification among the Tiv women. (K & AP)

083.     Malcolm, L. W. G., “Notes on the physical anthropology of certain West African tribes-Munchi.” Man 20.8 (1920): 116-121.

The physical characteristics of the Munchi people (a part of the Tiv group), compared to the other Nigerian groups, are discussed in this text. This comparison includes a lighter skin tone and markings on the face and body. (HR)

084.    Rowe, Charles. “Abdominal cicatrisation of the Munshi Tribe, Nigeria.” Man 28.11 (1928): 179-180.

This is an extract from a letter communicated between Chas. F. Rowe and F. J. Richards, M.A., I.C.S. on March 31, 1928 including two pictures of scarred abdomens of two women. The Munchi are a sub-division of the Tiv ethnic group. (BL)

085.     Young, Frank W. “Male solidarity and the dramatization of sex roles.” Initiation Ceremonies: a Cross-Cultural Study of Status Dramatization. Indianapolis, IN; New York, NY; Kansas City, MO: Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc., 1965. 63-84.

This chapter looks at tattooing of the male Tiv. (ASR)

 

Yoruba:


086.    Adepegba, Cornelius O. “The descent from Oduduwa: Claims of superiority among some Yoruba traditional rulers and the arts of ancient Ife.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies 19.1 (1986): 77-92.

In this study of tracing history and cultural traditions through art pieces and other body adornments, the author tries to find compare the difference of some of the rulers of the Yoruba to the common people. There has been “conflicting claims of supremacy among some Yoruba traditional rulers,” (p. 77) states the author. The study included looking at items like, sculptures and headdresses, and other types of permanent markings, such as scarification, that the rulers used to distinguish themselves apart from other groups and the commoners. (JS)

087.    Ajisafe, Ajayi Kolawole. The Laws and Customs of the Yoruba People. Lagos, Nigeria: Kash and Klare Bookshop, 1946.

The issue of marriage tends to involve preparing the woman with scarification markings, as is described here. There is also a lot of information about other customs the Yoruba people live by. (HR)

088.    Drewal, Henry John. “Art or accident: Yoruba body artists and their deity Ogun.” Africa’s Ogun: Old World and New. Ed. Sandra T. Barnes. 2nd ed. Indianapolis/Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997. 235-260.

Lines in the flesh are considered primordial to the Yoruba. The Yoruba use symbols that are associated with Ogun and with the iron that was very important to their culture. The markings, placement and tools used in this practice are all discussed. (ILG)

089.    Drewal, Henry John. “Beauty and being: Aesthetics and ontology in Yoruba body art.” Marks of Civilization: Artistic Transformations of the Human Body. Ed. Arnold Rubin. Los Angeles, California: Museum of Cultural History, University of California, 1988. 83-96.

The role of Kolo marks is discussed both for aesthetics as well as a test of courage. Diagrams of the different designs are given along explanations of texture, color and composition. (ILG)

090.    Drewal, Henry John and John Mason. “Ogun and body/mind potentiality: Yoruba scarification and painting traditions in Africa and the Americas.” Africa’s Ogun: Old World and New. Ed. Sandra T. Barnes. 2nd ed. Indianapolis/Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997. 332-352.

The article begins with the Yoruba in Africa, and then looks at Cuba and the United States. The use of color and certain cuts is presented in accordance to the exploration of scarification for the aesthetic or to empower the body. (ILG)

091.    Euba, Titi. “The human image: some aspects of Yoruba canons of art and beauty.” Nigerian Magazine 54.4 (1986): 9-21.

The article explores African languages and their distinctions between topics such as ethics and aesthetics or goodness and beauty. The author focuses on Yoruba and their definition of beauty of the body. (ILG)

092.    Farrinder, Geoffrey. “Yoruba-speaking peoples in Dahomery.” Africa 17.2 (1947): 122-128.

There is a map with the article to show where the Yoruba language is spoken in Nigeria. The article then goes on to describe the different groups associated with the Yoruba including the different types of markings and tattoo arrangement. (HR)

093.    Forde, Daryll. The Yoruba-Speaking Peoples of South-Western Nigeria. Western Africa: Ethnographic Survey of Africa, Part IV. Ed. Daryll Forde, London, England: International African Institute, 1951. 27.

Customs and other general history are noted in this volume, including “Dress and Tribal Marks.” (ILG)

094.    Johnson, Samuel. The History of the Yoruba: from the Earliest Times to the Beginning of the British Protectorate. Lagos, Nigeria: C. M. S. Bookshops, 1960.

The book does have a lot of information about the Yoruba in general with the description of the customs as more of an introduction to the people. The majority of information found in this book is in the section called “facial marks,” although it is a good idea to look in the marriage section too. (HR)

095.    Macfie, J. W. Scott. “A Yoruba tattooer.” Man 13 (1913): 121-122.

This is a very brief article, which gives a specific description of the process of tattooing the skin, including rubbing charcoal in the wound. (MC)

096.    MacGaffey, Wyatt. “Art and spirituality.” African Spirituality: Forms, Meanings and Expressions. World spirituality: An encyclopedic history of the religious quest. New York: Herder and Herder book 3 (2000): 223-256.

The different ways art and spirituality co-exist in different ethnic groups is explored in this article. The Yoruba and Luba groups use body markings to emphasize the women’s beauty in their culture. (ILG)

097.    Olupona, J. K. Kingship, Religion, and Rituals in a Nigerian Community: a Phenomenological Study of Ondo Yoruba Festivals. Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis Stockholm Studies in Comparative Religion Ser. 28. Stockholm, Sweden: Almqvist & Wiksell International, 1991.

The different rituals of the Yoruba are described in this text, including rituals specific to women. (ILG)

098.    Olupona, J. K. “The study of Yoruba religious tradition in historical perspective.” Numen. 40.3 (1993): 240-273.

The essay is “an overview of past and recent scholarship in Yoruba religion.” It compares the Yoruba in Nigeria and in the Americas involving group traditions. (K & AP)

099.    Oyetade, B. Akintunde. “The Yoruba Community in London.” African Languages and Cultures 6.1 (1993): 69-92.

The history and the reasons behind Nigerians moving to Britain are explained in the article along with a section called “Marks of Identify.” The Yoruba were distinguishable from other people of color in many ways. (AA)

100.    Verger, Pierre. “Yoruba myths and religion, and their Afro-American extensions.” American, African, and Old European Mythologies. Compiled by Yves Bonnefoy, Chicago, IL; London, England: The University of Chicago Press, 1993.

Many stories are related in this article as well as many images of the Yoruba in their ceremonial dress and body paint. (K)


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Last updated on December 24, 2004
Created Dec. 04, 2004
For: LIS 530M
Taught by: Professor Al Kagan

 

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